Reserach Methodology Essay

3.1 Research Design This study is a quantitative-descriptive in nature where the purpose is to describe the level of student’s satisfaction on services provided by the school towards the enrollment system through quantitative research method to quantify and reflect in numbers the observation made of the respondents being studied (Sampa, 2012). It attempts to explore and explain while providing additional information about the topic. This is where research is trying to describe what is happening in more detail, filling in the missing parts and expanding our understanding. This is also where as much information is collected as possible instead of making guesses or elaborate models to predict the future – the ‘what’ and ‘how,’ rather than the ‘why.’ The researchers used a modified questionnaire which answers the first two objectives of this study which is the extent to which students meets and/or exceeds their expectations and perceptions towards the enr ollment system provided by the University of Mindanao. 3.2 Research Respondents The respondents of this study were the students of University of Mindanao selected randomly according to their year level and their type (freshmen, old student, and transferee). 3.2.1 Population Population, statistically, refers to the entire aggregate of items, i.e., group of people or element, who shares common set of characteristics or interest, from which samples can be drawn, in which the researcher wishes to investigate. University of Mindanao has large population of students from both Bolton Campus and Matina Campus, hence, the population refers to the University of Mindanao students who are enrolled in Matina Campus. 3.2.2 Sampling Frame Sampling Frame refers to the target population. In this study, 60 respondents was selected from students currently enrolled in Matina Campus. 3.2.3 Types of Sampling Technique The researcher chose the simple random sampling whereby every element is selected independently and the sample is drawn by a random procedure from  the sampling frame. Sekaran(2003) as cited by Abdullah (2005) points out that through simple random sampling technique, all elements in the population are carefully weigh and each element has an equal chance of being chosen as the subject. If the main objective of this study is to generalize the ability of the findings to the whole population then, this sampling design is best suited. 3.2.4 Sampling Size It is concerned with how many people that should be surveyed. The sample size larger than 30 and less than 500 are appropriate for most research (Roscoe (1975) cited by Abdullah ( 2005)). It is believe that large sample generates inevitable results than smaller samples. However, it is not necessary to sample the entire target population or even a material portion to have reliable results. With this, the researcher only chose 60 sample units as the sampling size randomly due to the time constraints, cost and other human resources. Sixty questionnaires were being distributed to respondents who are currently enrolled in Matina Campus. 3.3 Research Instruments The researchers used a survey questionnaire in checklist form. This instrument was modified by the researchers to establish the level of student’s satisfaction on enrolment system provided by University of Mindanao. The instrument determined, among others, the gender, type of student (freshmen, old student and transferees), and year level of the respondents. The Itemized Rating Scale survey was the selected questionnaire type as this enabled the respondents to answer the survey easily. Though, it is somewhat similar to Likert Scale but it uses other than agreement /disagreement item statement. This rating scale requires the subject to indicate his or her level of satisfaction to a statement. In this type of questionnaire, the respondents were given five response choices.

Enhance the learning process in malaysian schools

Education is one of the chief basicss in constructing up a state. In Malaysia, instruction has ever been the top precedence of the authorities. About a one-fourth of the authorities 5 old ages budget is allocated to the ministry of instruction to keep good instruction system in this state. The vision of the authorities is to do Malaysia a Centre of educational excellence. There are three degrees of instruction in Malaysia which are the primary instruction – a period of six old ages, that is, from Standard One to Standard Six ; secondary instruction – five old ages, that is, from Form One to Form Five ; and the third degree of instruction. Upon completion of secondary instruction, eligible pupils can choose to prosecute two old ages of post-secondary instruction, Form Six. This is the university entryway preparative class. The pre-tertiary instruction ( pre-school to post-secondary instruction ) is under the legal power of the Ministry of Education ( MOE ) while Tertiary or higher instruction is the duty of the Ministry of Higher Education ( MOHE ) .[ 1 ] Education is a precedence of the Federal Government of Malaysia and it is committed to supply quality instruction to all. Most of the Five-Year Malayan Plans have placed great importance on instruction, preparation and womb-to-tomb acquisition. In line with greater focal point on human development, an norm of about 21 per centum of the entire budget allotment has been allocated for the outgo of instruction and preparation development. The national doctrine of instruction provinces that â€Å" Education in Malaysia is an on-going attempt towards further developing the potency of persons in a holistic and incorporate mode so as to bring forth persons who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced and harmonious, based on a steadfast belief in and devotedness to God. † It is designed to bring forth Malayan citizens who are knowing and competent, possess high moral criterions, and are responsible and capable of accomplishing a high degree of personal well being every bit good as to lend to the improvement of the household, society and state at big.[ 2 ] In order to back up â€Å" Vision 2020 † the instruction system is transforming which entail altering the civilization and patterns of Malaysia ‘s primary and secondary schools, traveling off from memory-based larning to an instruction that stimulates believing, creativeness, caters to single abilities and larning manners, and based on a more just entree. At the same clip, Malaysia is originating many attacks in order to maintain up with the altering universe and current demands which will bring forth a well-structured development of higher instruction. The authorities has besides clearly outlined the strategic pushs in the National Higher Education Strategic Plan to do Malaysia an international Centre of educational excellence by 2020.[ 3 ]MALAYSIAN EDUCATION SYSTEMEducation is the duty of the Federal Government. Malaysia ‘s national instruction system is divided into pre-tertiary and third instruction. There are two regulating governments for the instruction sect or. Pre-tertiary instruction, that is, from pre-school to secondary instruction, is under the legal power of the Ministry of Education ( MOE ) while third instruction or higher instruction is the duty of the Ministry of Higher Education ( MOHE ) . Under the national instruction system, a kid begins his/her instruction with pre-school instruction at the age of four and will be admitted into the first twelvemonth of the six old ages mandatory primary instruction when the kid reaches the age of six on the first twenty-four hours of January of the current school twelvemonth. The authorities provides 11 old ages of free primary and secondary instruction. Most schools in the state are authorities or government-aided schools and a figure of private schools. The school starts in January and ends in November. Students sit for common public scrutinies at the terminal of primary, lower secondary, supper secondary and 6th signifier degrees.[ 4 ] Pre-school Education. Pre-school instruction is portion of the National Education System under the Education Act, 1996. The purpose of pre-school instruction is to supply a house foundation for formal instruction. Pre-schools are run by authorities bureaus, non-governmental organisations ( NGOs ) every bit good as private establishments. The major authorities bureaus that are responsible for pre-school instruction are the Ministry of Education ( MOE ) , the Ministry of Rural Development, and the Ministry of National Unity and Community Development. Children enroll between the ages of four and six and all pre-schools have to stay the course of study guidelines set by the Ministry of Education. The course of study enables pre-school kids to get sufficient basin communicating, societal and other positive accomplishments in readying for primary schooling. The learning constituents include linguistic communication and communicating, physical development, cognitive development, moral and r eligious growing, socio-emotional development, aesthetic and creativeness. Primary Education. Primary instruction is divided into two stages – stage 1: Year 1-3 and phase 2: Year 4-6. Education at this degree aims to supply the kid with a house foundation in the basic accomplishments of reading, composing and arithmetic, every bit good as stressing believing accomplishments and values across the course of study. While instruction at this degree is non mandatory, more than 99 per centum of this age-group are enrolled in primary schools throughout the state. There are two types of schools at the primary degree – the National Schools and the National-Type Schools. In the National Schools the medium of direction is the Malay linguistic communication which is the national linguistic communication. The medium of direction in the National-Type Schools is either Chinese linguistic communication or Tamil linguistic communication. in both types of schools, the Malay linguistic communication is a compulsory topic. English is mandatory and is taught as a 2nd linguistic communication in all schools. Chinese, Tamil and autochthonal linguistic communications are besides offered as topics in national schools.[ 5 ] Secondary Education. Secondary instruction is fundamentally an extension of primary degree instruction. Education at this degree is general in nature and is divided into lower and upper secondary degree, and a particular twelvemonth passage plan known as â€Å" Remove Class ‘ for students from the National-Type Chinese and Tamil Primary Schools.[ 6 ] a. Remove Class. Remove Class is a passage twelvemonth for students from the Chinese and Tamil medium schools to get sufficient proficiency in the national linguistic communication to enable them to larn through this medium the undermentioned twelvemonth. However, students who have performed good in the Primary Assessment Test ( UPSR – Ujian Penilaian Sekolah Rendah ) at the terminal of Year 6, are allowed to continue straight to Form 1. B. Lower Secondary Level ( Form 1-Form 3 ) . This degree covers a period of three old ages. Education at this degree is general in nature. All topics are core topics and compulsory for all. Chinese, linguistic communication, Tamil linguistic communication and Arabic linguistic communication ( Communication ) are offered as extra topics. Upon completion, pupils sit for a common scrutiny, that is, the Lower Secondary Assessment ( PMR – Penilaian Menengah Rendah ) . c. Upper Secondary ( Form 4-5 ) . Education at this degree covers a period of two old ages. Besides following the general instruction plan, pupils begin to specialise in the scientific discipline, humanistic disciplines, proficient, vocational and spiritual subject. Specific schools are designated for each subject. These schools are academic schools, proficient schools, vocational schools and spiritual schools. Upon completion, pupils sit for the Malayan Certificate of Education ( SPM – Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia ) scrutiny. Secondary Technical Schools. Secondary proficient instruction is aimed at bring forthing an equal pool of qualified pupils who excel in mathematics and scientific discipline, every bit good as in basic technology topics. Students in secondary proficient schools follow the same nucleus topics of upper secondary school course of study and take scientific discipline and proficient topics as electives. Admission to these schools is through application based on the PMR consequences, and merely pupils with strong background in Mathematicss and Science are selected. Students from these schools are expected to go on their surveies in scientific discipline and technology-related classs at the higher degrees every bit good as in advanced accomplishments. Secondary Vocational Schools. These schools provide classs in pre-employment accomplishments every bit good as general instruction. Courses are offered in two watercourses – vocational instruction watercourse and accomplishments instruction watercourse. In the former, accent is given to general and proficient topics in order to supply pupils with a good foundation for admittance into engineering schools or other higher establishments. In the accomplishments stream accent is given to practical work to develop competence in trade accomplishments required by related industries. Students are prepared for the National Vocational Training Certificate. Upon completion of 11 old ages of free instruction, farther instruction is no longer automatic but is capable to the person ‘s academic public presentation and fiscal stableness. These upper secondary school alumnuss, that is, Form Five departers, can choose to go on their instruction in post-secondary schools to obtain a pre-university making such as the Sixth Form or Matriculation plan or GCE A'Level, or further their instruction at third or higher establishments. Higher instruction includes certification, sheepskin, undergraduates every bit good as graduate student surveies. Undergraduate surveies consist of Bachelor ‘s grade degrees and professional surveies while postgraduate surveies consist of Master ‘s grades and PhD degrees. By and large, higher instruction at the sheepskin degree is for secondary school certification holders, that is, Form Five ( Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia or SPM ) from the age of 17 onwards. The Bachelor ‘s grade is for pupils from th e age of 19 onwards with post-secondary makings such Form Six ( STPM – Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia ) , which is tantamount to the GCE A'Level, or pre-university makings.[ 7 ]MALAYSIAN SCHOOL CURRICULUMThe function of the school course of study is to guarantee the holistic development of the person ‘s possible, mentally, spiritually, emotionally and physically. The course of study is to convey faster the Malayan citizen who is balanced and all-around person, trained, adept and cherishes the national aspiration for integrity. The Malayan school course of study has been reframed and realigned to show and future demands. Besides that, rapid developments in engineering, new theories of acquisition and developments within Malaysia itself necessitated the systematic course of study. The footing of the course of study took into considerations four chief facets – national development, single development, larning theories, and the national doctrine of instruction.[ 8 ] The basic theoretical rule in the planning and design of the Malayan course of study is the incorporate attack. Infusion of specific facets of instruction such as moral values, nationalism, scientific discipline and engineering, linguistic communication, environmental instruction, survey accomplishments, originative and critical thought, and route safety across the topic disciplines is a basic characteristic in the Malayan course of study. Such an extract is made with the intent of consolidating these facets which may already be in the school topics but needs farther accent. Patriotism, for illustration, is already discussed in History and Local Surveies but because of its importance, the national course of study requires that it be taught across other topics. Others such as environmental instruction are taught across the course of study because it can non be accorded the position of capable due to restraints of clip, installations and the similar. The proficient, vocational and accomplishments developing offered in secondary proficient and secondary vocational schools provide pupils with practical preparation and employability accomplishments. Besides that, the usage of engineering as an enabler to ease instruction and acquisition activities have made larning interesting, motivation, stimulating, meaningful and develop accomplishments that will fix pupils to confront greater challenges.[ 9 ] Pre-school Curriculum. The pre-school course of study focuses on the whole-child development. The course of study emphasizes on socialisation procedure, the development of personality and the readying of kids to come in primary school. The constituents in the course of study include linguistic communication and communicating, cognitive development, socio-emotional development, religious development, physical development and aesthetic and creativeness. Primary School Curriculum. The Integrated Curriculum for Primary School ( ICPS ) is divided into two stages – stage 1 for Year 1-3 and phase 2 for Year 4-6. The ICPS emphasizes the command, support and application of 3Rs, acquisition of complex accomplishments and cognition, pre-vocational accomplishment, and the development of personality, attitudes and values. The ICPS consists of three countries, chiefly communicating, adult male and his environment, and self development. These countries are farther divide into six constituents – basic accomplishments, humanistic disciplines, art and diversion, populating accomplishments, communicating, spiritually, values and attitudes. Secondary School Curriculum. The accent of Integrated Curriculum for Secondary School ( ICCS ) is on general instruction, the consolidation of accomplishments acquired in primary school, the development of attitudes, values, personality, and involvements every bit good as specialisation for higher instruction and calling options.CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES IN EDUCATIONIn the 21st century, instruction in Malaysia will confront important challenge as it is in this century that the state is set to go industrialised. It is imperative hence to understand what it is that demands to be given attending for the instruction system to fix adequately for the century: a. Shift to K-economy. Knowledge has to be the basic signifier of capital in the 21st century to place Malaysia for industrialisation. The instruction system must give cognition workers to force Malaysia into the K-economy. Knowledge workers are indispensable for the state to do investings in engineering which will lend to sustainable growing. Malayan instruction must heighten cognition and engineering in every aspect of its instruction system.[ 10 ] B. Bettering Education Qualities. Given all the qualitative accomplishments at all degrees of instruction with uninterrupted growing of registration rates, Malayan instruction has to switch to the laterality of qualitative mark. Several factors have to be considered for finding educational quality. The countries of content and bringing that straight affect learning and larning must be given accent. There have to be inventions within the attack for both the content and bringing at all degrees of instruction. To guarantee effectual bringing, instructor professionalism has to be addressed to bring on greater professionalism among school instructors. Recruitments, preparation and school restructuring should be the primary mark countries for presenting professionalism among instructors.[ 11 ] c. Narrowing the Digital Divide. The equity issue in instruction should take for supplying equal entree to instruction. The focal point of democratisation of the instruction in the 21st century will be in footings of supplying equity in instruction with accent on cognition and engineering between rural and urban school population. Malayan instruction has to accomplish addition engagement and improved public presentation in scientific discipline and engineering particularly among the school population. Apart from supplying the necessary substructure, scientific discipline and engineering have to be sharply promoted to tackle involvement among pupils.[ 12 ] d. Redefining the Role of the Private Sector. The function of the private sector is critical peculiarly at the higher degree of instruction. It releases some of the heavy funding burden off the authorities, reduces the capacity restraints of the public establishments, and supply invention and competition. Nonetheless, net income and commercial motives have developed a figure of jobs. These jobs if non reference adequately will consequence the quality of higher instruction in the state. One wide inquiry that should be addressed is what should be the function of private higher instruction – should they be complementary, auxiliary or both.[ 13 ] e. Teaching Methodology. Two shortcoming are identified in the current pattern: ( I ) lecture-based direction – pupils tend to go inactive receivers of cognition and resort to rote acquisition ; ( two ) teacher-centered – pupils tend to trust on their instructors to make up one's mind what, when, and how to larn. This worked comparatively good but it is non clear that pupils are larning at higher, conceptual degree of thought.[ 14 ]PROPOSED ENHANCEMENTSSeveral factors ought to ease the sweetenings of the Malayan instruction system, particularly the national course of study such as the debut of new topics and plans in schools. The facilitating factors include findings of research and surveies, public sentiments, universe tendencies, societal and economic demands and political force per unit areas. In add-on, they are to be facilitated further with the being of the undermentioned supporting factors at changing grades: a. The authorities ‘s continued attempts to spread out and better instruction and preparation through addition in the budget for instruction. B. The experience over the old ages of the state ‘s instruction policy in heightening quality and entree to instruction to run into the demands of rapid development of the state. c. Availability of basic substructure and preparation, that is, in-service instructor preparation, seminars, forums and workshops to familiarise instructors with the course of study and to upgrade instructors ‘ efficiency. d. Continuous developing received by ministry officers both locally and overseas covering a broad scope of subjects which helps the officers to derive more cognition and experience in planning and implementing course of study reform enterprises. e. Public consciousness and support to transport out educational reforms to carry through the demands of cultural, societal and economic development. f. Attempts by both the authorities and private sectors to escalate the acquisition and application of information and communicating engineerings in all Fieldss of life as a consequence of globalisation and modernization. g. The strong committedness and consciousness among parents of the importance of instruction in bring forthing educated, knowing and adept Malaysians who are prudent, originative and advanced. h. In the acquisition procedure, to develop inter-personal and small-group accomplishments – instructors must supply chances for group members to cognize each other, support and accept each other, pass on accurately and confidently, and decide differences constructively. i. Promotive interactions – person can accomplish promotive interaction by assisting each other, exchanging resources, disputing each other ‘s decision, supply feedback, promoting and endeavoring for common benefits. J. Individual answerability – instructors should measure the sum of attempt that each member is lending. These can be done by giving an single trial to each pupil and indiscriminately naming pupils to show their group ‘s work. k. Group treating – instructors should supply chances for the category to measure group advancement. This would enable group to concentrate on good working relationship, facilitate cooperation in acquisition and guarantee members get feedback.[ 15 ] l. The course of study must be so designed and indiscriminately monitored to assist pupils accomplish overall and balance development and betterment. m. Appropriate mix of larning schemes to guarantee command of basic competences and publicity of holistic development. n. More accent should be given on pupils understanding of a peculiar construct, steering pupils in active acquisition, supplying chances for treatment and amplification, and promoting them to work with equals and instructors. O. Encourage and support collaborative attempt with pupils from other schools or even from other states. p. The course of study and learning methodological analysis must provide to pupils ‘ different capablenesss, for illustration, their acquisition manners and degrees of intelligence. Q. Allow pupils to pattern self-paced, self-accessed and autonomous acquisition which can be facilitated via the usage of engineering.[ 16 ]DecisionThe environment and socialization procedure to which pupils are exposed remain as of import factors lending to academic success and character edifice. The Malayan educational system, at pre-school, primary and third degrees have systematically emphasised on the importance of nurturing, among others, moral values and moralss among pupils. Therefore, the quality of instruction that instructors provide to pupils is extremely dependent upon what instructors do in the schoolroom. Teachers should hold the cognition on how pupils learn and how best to learn. In add-on, modern-day acquisition and learning methodological analysis should be in line with the engineerings of tomorrow where engineerings and communications substructure are paving the manner for a more sophisticated ICT-enabled instruction and acquisition environment. Indeed, with the coming of globalization and modernization, the instruction course of study in Malaysia for sustainable development in the new century, call for a entire committednesss from all Malaysians, with a sense of urgency in the face of increasing competition. The Malayan policy model recognises that instruction development plays an of all time of import function in constructing a sustainable, resilient and competitory society. Interestingly, the planetary instruction scenario has similar development schemes, viz. , by supplying wider handinesss, guaranting quality instruction, uninterrupted strategic instruction reforms so that the several states can vie as planetary instruction suppliers. In fact, instruction has already evolved into a large economic entity for some states. Malaysia ought to be ready to confront these challenges in the field of instruction, both internally and externally, with the coming of globalization, trade liberalization, and the development of ICT in this new century.

Smart materials

The primary characteristic of a â€Å"smart material† is that it has the ability to respond to external stimuli in a technically useful and technically controlled way. The words â€Å"technically useful† and â€Å"technically controlled† are emphasized since all materials respond to external stimuli of some sort or other (as a simple example, all materials respond to temperature by changing their volume), however, to be considered a â€Å"smart material† the response must be one that is useful in an engineering application.Thus, any discussion of smart materials must include a consideration of the application of these materials. Animals and plants could be considered as consisting of a large number of smart materials, however, the scope of this article will be restricted to inorganic and organic materials that are used in a more traditional engineering sense. ) The term smart material often also has a historical context, only being applied to relatively ne w materials. For example, consider the simple bimetallic strip.Bimetallic strips have been around for centuries and consist of two metals Joined so that the difference in the coefficient of thermal expansion causes the strip to bend in response to a change in temperature. This can be used, eg, to open or close a echanical valve or electrical circuit. The stimuli may either be provided by the natural environment or engineered into a structure that the material is part of. However, bimetallic strips are often not thought of as smart materials because they have been around and used for a long time.Smart materials are also often characterized by the fact that they transform energy from one mode to another, eg, from electrical energy to mechanical energy. Smart materials are also often incorporated in so-called Smart Structures, which are structures that, as well as being the structural support of a building or vehicle, also have a further function. For example, a load-bearing structure that also measures the load that it is carrying is an example of a smart structure. 2.Classification Schemes How a material is considered or classified depends to some extent on the scientific or technical discipline that is considering the material. For example, a material scientist is interested in the internal structure and how this may change under the influence of an external stimulus, whereas an application engineer may be more concerned with the function of the material and what it can be used for. 2. 1 . Classification According to Function. Smart materials can be classified according to the intended primary function, eg, as a sensor, actuator, or energy generator.Piezoelectric material is an example of a class of smart materials that can be used in all three of these functions. When subjected to stress these materials generate an electrical voltage that can be used as a response signal and also to generate power. Alternatively, when subjected to a voltage these materials ge nerate a mechanical stress. The interchangeable nature of stimulus and response is a common, but not universal, characteristic ot 1 Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Copyright John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. vol. O smart materials. Materials that exhibit this interchangeable nature are often good candidates for smart structures with minimal external support requirements: one smart material both sensing and generating power and also capable of providing a mechanical or other response. Active Sensing Materials. The primary action of these materials is to transform one form of energy to another form of energy for, in most cases, a further device or material used to then generate a response. Active sensing materials may often be used to generate energy.For example, the voltage developed by electric polarization of a material can be used to accumulate charge, and the solar cell both detects the presence of incident light and generates a significant voltage and current. Passive Sensing Materials. These materials have a passive response to external stimuli, ie, do not transform an energy source to another energy. Thus these devices need an external source of power to operate. They are not really â€Å"smart†, but are included here for completeness since they do appear as sensors in larger smart systems.An example of a passive response is a change in electrical conductivity due o, eg, a change in pH of a solution. Actuating Materials. The primary function is to transform one form of energy to another form as a response to some external stimuli and to perform an action. 2. 2. Classification According to Smartness. Another possible classification is according to the degree of independence of operation that the smart material needs to operate in a smart structure. In this case, materials that require the least external support (eg, external power or processing capability) being considered smarter.A common example of a totally independen t smart material is that used in photochromic sunglasses. In this case, the energy required to drive the response, darkening of the sunglasses is provided directly by the stimulus, the incident light. 2. 3. Classification According to Material Properties. A further way to look at smart materials is to consider the primary physical-chemical property of the material that is used in smart applications. This is particularly useful in studying and understanding the operation of smart materials.Crystal Structure Modification. A number of classes of smart materials have crystal structural properties that can be used directly for smart actuating or sensing applications. These include materials that undergo a crystallographic phase change (eg, shape memory alloys), materials that have an electrical polarization natural to the crystal structure that responds to external stress (eg, piezoelectric materials) and materials that undergo realignment ot internal domains, such as electro- and magnet ostrictive materials.Energy Absorption-Emission. This includes materials that absorb incident energy by an internal excitation process (eg, promotion of electrons, on absorption of a photon, to a higher energy band). These often have a de-excitation process that involves the emission of energy. Examples include semiconductor devices as light sensors and energy harvesting devices. Macroscopic Ordering. Includes (generally) mixtures of materials where the large scale ordering of the particles in the mixture induces a change in properties of the mixture.Examples include electro- and magnetorheological fluids, 3 where an applied field induces particles in the fluid to align resulting in a change in viscosity. The Liquid Crystal Display can also be considered in this category. Chemical Interaction. Includes materials with sensitized surfaces that interact with target chemical or biological species. Examples include conducting polymers with functional groups that bind to chemical species and change the resistance of the polymer, and antigen coatings on microbalance mass detectors. Indicator chemicals that change color with, eg, pH, are another form of chemical sensor. . Smart Materials Overview Table 1 is a summary ofa number of materials that can be used in smart applications, ‘e, classified as to function. The following sections consider a number of these materials in more detail. Some sections deal with a particular type of smart material, whereas others deal with a class of material types. Inevitably, there are verlaps between these two, however, consideration of smart materials in this way is beneficial since, as discussed above, the view of the subject is colored by the point of view of the discussion.Smart materials include such a wide range of materials and possibilities it is worthwhile viewing the subject from a number of angles. The following is not an exhaustive list of smart materials, but serves as examples of the more common smart materials. Man y of the materials in Table 1 can be described as â€Å"responsive† rather than truly smart, ie, these materials can form one part of a smart system, either the sensor or ctuator, but require another responsive material for the actuator or sensor, respectively, to make up a complete smart system.Only a few materials, eg, the photochromic sunglasses mentioned in the section classification schemes, are both sensor and actuator. Even materials that can be used as an actuator and sensor often cannot be engineered to perform both functions effectively at the same time. Thus, most smart materials are used in combinations to form smart systems. An example of a possible system is an antivibration device that uses a piezoelectric sensor to detect the vibration and a magnetorheological fluid as the damper.The reterence section includes a number ot Internet web sites tor turtner practical information and as examples of the use and current availability of some smart materials. A number o f these references are to commercial web sites as useful sites regarding the application and maturity of some of the technologies, but this in no way is an implied endorsement of the particular companies. 4. Piezoelectric and Related Phenomena Piezoelectric materials are materials that exhibit a linear relationship between electric and mechanical variables.The electric polarization is proportional to the mechanical stress. Piezoelectric materials are â€Å"two-way'; (a) they convert mechanical stress into an electric field (Fig. la), and this effect is employed in piezoelectric sensors; (b) application of an electric field produces a mechanical 4 stress (Fig. 1b, c), and this behavior is utilized in actuator and power generator- harvesting devices. Only materials with an electrically poled, anisotropic crystal stucture can form piezoelectrics; ‘e, there must be an intrinsic electric field maintained in a particular direction throughout the material.Thus the material must be p yroelectric. A feature of a pyroelectric material is the disappearance of this pontaneous electric field above the Curie point temperature. Piezoelectric devices are formed by raising the material above the Curie point temperature and then cooling in the presence of a strong electric field. The common term for this action is to say that the material is â€Å"poled† in the presence of the electric field. This results in partial or complete alignment of the spontaneous electric field within the material. A related material property is the ferroelectric effect.All ferroelectric materials are necessarily both pyroelectric and piezoelectric. The ferroelectric effect is the electric olarization brought about by the complete or partial realignment of the spontaneous polarization resulting in a static electric field at the surfaces of the materials. (But note, a net field is not normally detected because the surface charge is rapidly neutralized by ambient charged particles. ) There are two principal types of materials that can function as piezoelectrics: the ceramics and polymers. 1 .Ceramics: The most widely used materials are the piezoceramics based on the lead zirconate titanate (PZT) formations, mixed sodium and potassium niobates, lithium niobate, and quartz. The advantages of these piezoceramics are that they have a high piezoelectric activity and they can be fabricated in many different shapes. 2. Polymers: Poly(vinylidene fluoride), PVDF, is the most widely used polymer piezoelectric material. It has the advantages over ceramic devices of flexibility, formability and can be simply cut to shape. Polymer piezoelectric materials have lower authority (force and displacement) than ceramic devices.The PVDF structure is a good example of the spontaneous electric field seen in these types of material (Fig. A limitation of piezoelectric materials is that they exhibit small dimensional changes but with high applied force). Composite structures consisting of a le ngth of piezoelectric bonded to a nonpiezoelectric substrate can be used to convert the lateral change in dimension of the piezoelectric to a bending force. In this way, larger actuation strokes can be achieved. Piezoelectric materials are used in many different types of sensing and actuating devices and also for power harvesting.Examples include Sensors: vibration, sound, accelerometers, pressure, ultrasonics, strain, power generation. Actuators: print heads, vibration suppression, speakers and buzzers, spark generators, ultrasonic ransducers, micropositioning and translation. Electrical components: filters and resonators. 5 5. Shape Memory Alloys and Polymers Metal shape memory alloys (SMAs) exhibit the properties of pseudo-elasticity and the shape memory effect. These alloys undergo thermomechanical changes passing from a martensitic phase at low temperature to an austenitic phase at higher temperature (Fig. a). 5. 1 . Shape Memory Effect. In the martensite phase, the alloy is so fter and easily manipulated through large strains with a little change in stress, ie, it can be easily deformed. As the temperature of the alloy is increased above the critical transformation) temperature, it changes into the austentic phase. In the austentic phase, the alloy regains its high strength and high modulus and also reverts back to its original shape. Thus a SMA can be formed into shape above the transformation temperature, cooled below the transformation temperature, and formed into different shape.On heating, the SMA will revert to the shape that it was formed into above the transformation temperature (Fig. 3b). 5. 2. Pseudo-Elasticity. This occurs when the alloy is completely composed of austenite (‘e, the temperature is above the transformation temperature). If the temperature is kept constant and the material is loaded, then at some point there will be a transformation to the martensite phase simply due to loading. The load is absorbed by deformation of the sof ter martensite phase, but upon unloading the martensite starts to transform back into austenite and the materials springs back into its original shape (Fig. c). Shape memory alloys (SMAs) can be divided into three functional groups: one-way SMAs, two-way SMAs, and magnetically controlled SMAs. The magnetically controlled SMAS show great potential as actuator materials for smart tructures because they could provide rapid strokes with large amplitudes under precise control. The most extensively used conventional shape memory alloys are the nickel-titanium, copper-zinc-aluminium, and copper- aluminium-nickel alloys. Due to their low cost, iron-based shape memory alloys are becoming more popular in smart structure applications.Iron-manganese- silicon steels alloyed with chromium, nickel, and cobalt, and iron-manganese- silicon steels alloyed with nitrogen all fit into this category. As previously mentioned, the nickel-titanium alloys have been the most widely used shape memory alloys. T his family of nickel-titanium alloys is known as Nitinol (Nickel Titanium Naval Ordnance Laboratory in honor of the place where this material behavior was first observed). Nitinol can be used in robotics actuators and micromanipulators that simulate human muscle motion.The ability of Nitinol to exert a smooth, controlled force when activated is an advantage of this material family. SMAS have been used for military, medical, safety, and robotics applications. Specific usages include hydraulic lines, medical tweezers, anchors for attaching tendons to bones, eyeglass frames, control of hot house windows, underwire brassieres, and ntiscalding valves used in water taps, and shower heads. 5. 3. Shape Memory Polymers. Shape memory polymers (SMP) are polymers (polyurethane based thermoplastics) that can be heated (above the glass transition temperature), deformed, and cooled to retain the deformed 6 shape.Upon heating above the transition temperature, the material softens and returns to the shape that it had prior to deformation. Advantages of SMPs over metallic SMAS include light weight, high recoverable strains (up to 400%), injection moulding (to form complex shapes), low cost and SMPs have shape recovery temperatures selectable between A30 and 708C. The SMAs, however, have superior force characteristics and can operate at higher temperatures. 6. Electrostrictive Materials Electrostrictive materials are materials that exhibit a quadratic relationship between mechanical stress and an applied electric polarization (Fig. ). Electrostriction can occur in any material. Whenever an electric field is applied, the induced charges in the material attract each other resulting in a compressive force. This attraction is independent of the sign of the electric field. The strain in the material lies along the axis of the induced polarization, which is preferably the direction of the applied lectric field. Electrostriction is a small effect and, in contrast to piezoelectric mater ials, electrostrictive materials show a large effect near the Curie temperature, especially for ferroelectric substances, such as members of the perovskite family.Typical electrostrictive materials include such compounds as lead manganese niobate:lead titanate (PMN:PT) and lead lanthanium zirconate titanate (PLZT). Electrostriction is used in actuators for accurate and fine positioning. Electrostrictive translators are less stable than piezoelectric devices with greater sensitivity to temperature. The one advantage they offer is lower hysteresis than piezoelectric materials at temperatures typically >1 7. Magnetostrictive Materials The same type of material response as that seen in electrostrictive materials discussed above can be observed when the stimulus is a magnetic field.Shape changes are the largest in ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic solids. The repositioning of domain walls that occur when these solids are placed in magnetic field leads to hysteresis between magnetization an d an applied magnetic field. All of these effects disappear when the ferromagnetic material is heated above its Curie temperature. Ferrimagnetic materials have macroscopic properties similar to ferromagnetics; however, their microscopic properties are different. The magnetic dipoles of a ferromagnetic solid are aligned parallel to each other; whereas in a ferrimagnetic the alignment can be either parallel or in other directions.Materials that have shown a response to a magnetic stimuli are primarily inorganic: alloys of iron, nickel, and cobalt doped with rare earths. TERFENOLD, an alloy of terbium, dysprosium, and iron, TbxDy1 †¦xFey with x between 0. 27 and 0. 30 and y between 1. 90 and 1. 95, is the most effective magnetostrictive material and has been escribed as the â€Å"200 lb† gorilla of magnetostrictive materials. The name TERFENOL is an acronym for two of the elements present in the alloy and NOL refers to the Naval Ordinance Laboratory where this type 7 of mat erial behavior was developed.Magnetostriction occurs at its fullest potential in crystalline materials. Cost still appears to be one of the hindrances to magnetostrictive materials becoming commercially important. Piezoelectric materials are generally more compact and require less energy to operate than magnetostrictive materials. Magnetostrictive materials (‘e, TERFENOL-D) are useful where high force, igh power, and a long stroke are required or where the high drive voltages typical of the piezoelectric materials cannot be tolerated. 8.Electro- and Magnetorheological Materials Electrorheological and magnetorheological materials are fluids that exhibit a dramatic change in viscosity with an applied electric or magnetic field. The fluid can change from a thick oily consistency to virtually a solid substance within a millisecond. There are a wide assortment of electrorheological and magnetorheological fluids, which are usually a uniform dispersion or suspension of particles with in a fluid. A typical example of an electrorheological fluid is a mixture of cornstarch in a silicone oil. The mechanism of how electrorheological fluids work is simple.When there is no electric field the particles in the fluid are distributed randomly and are free to move in the fluid. In an applied electric field the particles orient themselves in ?ber-like structures (fibrils) that are much harder to move and impede the flow of the fluid, dramatically increasing the viscosity of the fluid-particle mixture (Fig. 5). Typical magnetorheological fluids consist of tiny iron particles uspended in oil and have a similar behavior to the electrorheological fluids except initiated by the application of a magnetic field. 8. 1 . Electrorheological Materials.Electrorheological fluids are nonNewtonian fluids, ‘e, the relationship between shear stress and strain rate is nonlinear. The changes in viscous properties of electrorheological fluids are only obtained at relatively high electric fields, in the order of 1 kV/mm. The practical applications of electrorheological fluids center around their abilities to transfer shear stresses and of acting as a variable damping material in an electric field. They have been demonstrated in shock absorbers, brake systems, clutches, vibration damping, control valves, and actuators.An illustrative application of electrorheological fluids is their use as a smart space material. In this application, a single-link flexible-beam was constructed in a sandwich confguration with ER fluids distributed along its length. When the beam is to be rapidly moved back and forth, the ER fluid is not energized, providing flexibility during the transient response period of the maneuver (for speed). At the end point of the maneuver the beam is made rigid (for stability). . 2. Magnetorheological Materials.Magnetorheological fluids are the magnetic equivalent of electrorheological fluids. An advantage over the ER fluids is that high voltages are not req uired to actuate the MR fluids. These fluids are under development for use in shock absorbers, vibration damping, exercise equipment and surface polishing of machine parts. 8 9. Photoresponsive and Sensitive Materials There are several different types of material families that exhibit different types of light transmission-absorption or other responses to a stimulus.These include lectrochromism (a change in color as a function of an electrical field); thermochromism (color change with heat); photochromic materials (reversible lightsensitive materials); photographic materials (irreversible light-sensitive materials); photostrictive materials (shape changes due to light usually caused by changes in electronic structure); fluorescence (emission of light (photons) at a different wavelength to the incident light).An interesting material with both electro- and thermochromism behavior, V02, was evaluated for a smart window application. Materials are being developed to exhibit both photochro mic and photographic ehaviors and one such system is based on a substituted indolinospirobenzopyrene embedded in a polystyrene matrix. This system acts as a photochromic system at low exposure in the ultraviolet (uv) range and at high exposure it functions as a photographic system. The image can be devisualized by heat and can be restored many times witn uv irradiation.Another interesting application is the use ot polymers that fluoresce or change color in the presence of particular metal ions. This is being tested as a corrosion sensor with optical fibers coated with an appropriate polymer r with the polymer incorporated in a composite structure. The system is optically excited and the presence of light at the fluorescence wavelength indicates metal ions (and thus corrosion). Thermochromic materials find use in security devices and in thermal mapping applications.All semiconductor materials exhibit an electrical response to incident light due to the electron absorption of photons, of sufficient energy, and promotion of the electrons to the conduction band (change in resistance) and across doping gradients, as in diodes (generation of current and voltage) in solar cells. Of particular interest in this rea is the development of non-silicon systems, which may results in cheap, flexible, robust, and easy to transport and deploy solar energy collectors. 0. Chemical and Biochemically Sensitive Materials The most widely known classes of chemically sensitive materials are the pHsensitive materials that include the acids, bases, and indicators. The most interesting of these for smart applications are the indicators. These materials change colors as a function of pH and are usually totally reversible. Indicators have also been used in the development of novel chemical indicating systems.Devices based on the ermeability of organic vapors through polymeric films or porous polymeric plugs, and subsequent reaction with an indicator, are used for monitoring the condition of time and/or temperature sensitive items, eg, pharmaceutics, foods and other perishables. The system is activated by crushing the vial releasing the volatile component, which then slowly permeates through the film reacting with the indicator to give a visible color change. This change is 9 dependent on both time and temperature.Other examples of pH-sensitive materials include the smart hydrogels and smart polymers (see below in EAPs). There is increasing interest in the detection of other chemicals, particularly in the detection of chemical warfare agents, environmentally noxious chemicals, and the control and monitoring of (engine) emissions. Semiconductor film sensors based on metal oxides (eg, Sn02, ZnO, Ti02, W03) are used to measure the concentration of toxic and flammable gases.These devices operate at several hundreds of degrees and a chemical reaction between the gas and the metal oxide changes the electrical conductivity of the oxide. The conductivity is a function of the t emperature and gas concentration. Higher temperature devices (to $10008C) have been demonstrated using Sic and SrTi03 systems. At low temperatures, the gases interact with the metal oxide by a chemisorption mechanism. The chemically adsorbed particles receive a partial charge and the opposite charge is made available to the oxide as a tree electron to increase its conductivity.Metal oxide sensors (MOS) are finding applications in the automotive industry monitoring the composition of exhaust gases. Many actions in organic systems are governed by highly selective reactions that are in effect molecular recognition mechanisms. The molecules responsible for these rocesses are highly selective in the molecules that they bind to (‘e, recognize) and can be used in engineered devices as sensors. An example of this is coating piezoelectric material with a selective material and then detecting the increase in mass of the coating as the target molecule binds to the coating.Being organic i n nature means that a wide range of ways to modify these molecules are available, eg, light stimulated regions that change their fluorescence frequency in the presence of the target molecule. Conducting polymers can also be tailored to respond (by a change in resistance) to ifferent chemicals. In this case, the response is rather broad (ie, not very selective), however, systems have been developed with a number of polymers treated to react to different types of chemicals to obtain â€Å"fingerprints† that are specific to particular chemicals.These systems generally have a limited lifetime and increasing the life and stability of the conducting polymers is the main challenge facing their acceptance as sensors. A novel proposal for chemical detection is the use of molecularly imprinted plastics (MIPs). In this case, target molecules are imbedded in a (porous) plastic matrix that is pplied to some sensing-transducer device. The target molecule is then dissolved away leaving a ph ysical imprint in the plastic matrix.On exposure to the molecule in a gas or liquid the physical imprints left in the plastic are selective for the target molecule and collect it, altering the properties (eg, mass) of the plastic. 1 1 . Electroactive Polymers (Actuators) An electroactive polymer (EAP) is a polymer that exhibits a response to an applied electrical stimulation and often also develops an electrical response to a mechanical stimulation. Some of these materials have been touched on in previous sections.

Post-editing and Translation Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Post-editing and Translation Management - Essay Example Current TM software enables profession or domain-based customization, which limits the scope of substitutions, allowed and, therefore, improves output, especially where formulaic or formal language is required. As such, it would be expected that TM in cases involving legal and official documents can produce more palatable output as compared to less standardized text and conversations. Output quality in TM can also be enhanced through human intervention, such as the unambiguous identification of words that can be considered proper names in the text, which enables more accurate translation (Somers, 2013). The TM process can be described in terms of decoding the source text’s meaning, as well as re-encoding in the target language supported by a complex cognitive operation. Post-editing refers to the process through which machine-generated translations are improved with little manual intervention or labor, and is closely linked to the concept of pre-editing. During translation of the text, it is possible to achieve best results through source text pre-editing, such as through controlled language principles, after which the machine output is post-edited (Somers, 2013). Post-editing is quite different from editing that refers to the improvement of text generated by humans, also known in translation as revision. Text that has been post-edited could be revised afterward in order to ensure that language choice are of the best quality. Post-editing generally involves correction of output from translation, specifically to ensure that the output is of high quality. The degree or extent of post-editing may differ, which is dictated by the translation management criteria, and may either be full post-editing or light post-editing. Light post-editing involves minim al human intervention and is mainly meant to ensure that the output is readable, in which case the post-editor expects that the client only needs the text for inbound reasons (Somers, 2013). Full post-editing, on the other hand, seeks to make a text more stylistically appropriate by achieving improved quality of text for outbound and inbound purposes.

The Three Principal Sectors of the MICE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

The Three Principal Sectors of the MICE - Essay Example After that the participants had to lobby the government for rebates and also had to persuade the companies to continue having business meetings and conferences and also to give incentives to their employees. This is important because when people come for business meetings they also spend on other things such as food, shopping entertainment and this revenue is earned by the destination that is the city or state. When revenues are received and business is growing, then investment is made by the government and the private sector as well to improve the facilities so that the can attract more business. This means that this industry ultimately leads to economic development of the destination. This report focus on the MICE industry of UK, its economic importance and trends, problems faced by it and how it can deal with these problems and attract more tourism. Economic importance for UK Economic importance of this industry for UK is that it provides a stable business for hotels as it had don e when the recession of 2008 affected the core business of hotels badly. The MICE industry of UK is also an important part of the tourism industry. As there are many people who come for meetings, conference etc. from other countries and therefore the money spend by them on recreation and other entertainment is actually generating revenue for the tourism industry. ... xford Economic and Deloitte showed that the MICE industry was the fifth largest industry of UK worth ?115 billion and employing around 2.6 million people and this is expected to grow to 2.9 million till 2020. In the year 2010, UK ranked number 6th overall in the world and is very competitive globally. This industry provides jobs and is one of the industries in which work cannot be outsourced to other countries thereby creating job opportunities for the local people. Moreover it also helps in building the community as it brings business not only to the cities but also to the rural and coastal areas. Other than that, it builds an image of Britain in the eyes of the world as Britain has become famous for the business conferences and meetings. (UK Tourism Growing Faster Than Other Industries, 2010) Historical performance in UK: MICE industry in UK has seen the largest growth in the last two decades. MICE industry of UK has been very competitive as it keeps updating its technology, revamp ing its venues and also building new ones. In the year 2000, UK was the second largest player in the conference market (after Australia) with a market share of 8.85%.in the exhibitions industry in UK, most of the exhibitions were for the service sector and on second number was the culture and recreation sector. The incentive sector at that time was still at its infancy stage and had a lot of potential to grow. (The UK & London Conference Market, 2010) The demand for MICE industry has been on a declining trend after 2006 but the largest downfall was seen in 2009 when demand fell by 22% due to the economic recession of 2008.A further decrease of 5% was also seen in 2010. UK has been one of the most popular destinations for overseas meeting. In 2009, UK ranked fourth in Europe after Italy and

Business-Level and Corporate-Level Strategies Essay - 13

Business-Level and Corporate-Level Strategies - Essay Example The operations carried out at America, China, and United Kingdom was very successful. It provides online shopping opportunity to its customers. Its main objective is to provide better life to its customers with the help of the donations in kind. Wal-Mart is managed by Walton family as it is a family owned business. It has around 2.2 million employees across the world. Corporate level mainly deals with framing the mission and vision of the organization and planning accordingly to reach the desired goal. It formulates different strategies which are required for attainment of objectives of the company. The Functional level objectives are derived from that of the corporate level. This level develops coordination between the corporate and business unit level. In this complex environment of the business, the strategies are required to be formulated. This strategy is very well defined as in this level the marketing strategy will be further divided between the sales. The strategy in this level helps in the attainment of functional objectives of the organization (Hoskisson, Hitt and Ireland, 2012). Strategic management is required for the growth of the organization. It helps in the formulation of effective business environment. Business strategy is compared and formulated with the five forces that build competition. The strategic position of the company can be determined by the business level strategy. Wal-Mart adopts competitive advantage by delivering unique product to its customers by providing a standardized product at a lowest competitive price. The company can select any one from the given strategies to gain competitive advantage by delivering uniqueness in the product and lowering down the cost. The retail industry focuses on the cost leadership strategy to sustain in the market and narrowing the competitive scope. When the company provides unique product the customers will be willing to pay a premium for the product. Corporate level refers to the strategy

Labor mobility Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Labor mobility - Research Paper Example Frank Barry said that in the Harris-Todaro approach, perfect labor mobility is assumed (Fodders and Langhammer, 2006 p. 37). Here, migration utilizes utility across locations and it results to complete depopulation. This kind of perfect mobility yields a restrictive result, however, outside options will be held constant, the individuals welfare will be affected. To have a simpler model, let us consider Ehrenberg’s and Smith’s (2003) definition of mobility as an investment with costs at the start in exchange for future earnings or returns in the long run. The mobility decision is influenced by the benefits that will be acquired minus the costs of moving. Ehrenberg and Smith (2003) mentioned that the theory of human capital predicts the direction of migratory flows among workers. Labor will move to economies that offer higher earnings but this does not imply that their place origin has the worst opportunities available. Wage differential is one the reasons that labor migr ation occur. Table 1. Educational Attainment of Persons Going Out of the United States: 2009 to 2010 Educational Attainment Total Not a high school graduate 109,000 High school graduate 87,000 Some college or AA degree 76,000 Bachelor’s degree 166,000 Prof. or graduate degree 122,000 Persons age 1-24 385,000 Source: U.S. Bureau of Census, Geographical Mobility: 2009-2010, Table 1, http://www.census.gov/hhes/migration/data/cps/cps2010.html Education is the best determinant as to who will move within an age group (Ehrenberg and Smith, 2003). As we can see from Table 1, people having a bachelor’s degree are more likely to go abroad. With globalization and the continued advancement of technology, looking for job opportunities abroad will be easier especially for persons with a college degree or higher. They are considered as high-skilled laborers (Vinokur, 2006) belonging to the professional, technical, and kindred or related workers (Martin, Abella, and Kuptsch, 2006 p. 5 5). Radcliffe (2009) cited several ways how immigration could affect a recipient country’s economy. First, there will be an increase supply of labor. The arrival of migrant workers will increase the total labor supply of the recipient country. If labor demand will not increase, the increase in labor supply will result to a decrease in wage rates. Also, if available jobs will remain the same, the rise of labor supply will result to unemployment. There is also a positive effect that is brought about by immigration to the host country since some laborers added have specialized skills. These skills will contribute to the increase of productivity in their areas of concern. Most economists perceive that having immigrants will be beneficial to the country of origin for three reasons (Martin et al, 2006 p58). First, production loss especially in boom sectors will be minimized since the migrants can work on the vacant jobs until more local workers are trained. Second, they can increas e the diversity of work teams contributing to the increase of productivity. Lastly, they can hold down wage increases in their concerned sectors. Though this can be can be considered a loss to the local workers, this can be beneficial to the local populace since this would also imply that the price of the services they provide will still be easier to pay. In the perspective of the country of origin, the movement of their labor force outside the country is viewed in another manner. Brain drain

Main principles of industrial revolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Main principles of industrial revolution - Essay Example According to North, "institutions change shapes the way societies evolve through time and hence is the key to understanding historical change"(1990:vii, 3). Poor economic performance is the result of inefficient institutional structures. The difference growth rates among nations are the result of different types of societal rules that nations have. The great progress made by England compared to Spain is the different institutional structure of the two countries. Spain adopted a conquest strategy while England used a commerce strategy. However, there are some who consider North's emphasis on the importance of institutions too naive. According to Donald Snooks, what determines the industrial climate and economic growth is not the institutions but individuals who are capable of making decisions (292). Ideal institutional framework alone cannot achieve success in economic progress. There should be the apt technology for the success of any economic revolution. The Industrial revolution in England was fuelled by great technological change. This may be called the dynamic strategy of technological change. The growth that England showed in the middle ages was slowly losing the impetus by the 16th century and resulted in gradualism. This continued for many more years and the English economy stagnated in the early 1700(Wringley, 1994:32). Only a big push could save the country from financial ruins. Luckily for England a combination of Technological strides coupled with matching strength of institutions came to the rescue of the nation. The commercial change of the industrial transformation was not connected with England alone. Even France was an ideal soil for a change. Certain combination of factors in England made it a possibility. A major chunk of these were technological leaps that England had made. The adequate institutions that England evolved were also a major factor. Transportation in England had the support of the railways and steam engines. Further steam engines reduced human factor in industry. The global markets became accessible due to navigation. England replaced the institution of regulation and encouraged the climate of competition. The central factor in the success of Industrial Revolution was the cheaper method of manufacturing products and cheaper ways of transporting them across the globe. There was adequate institutional support for these activities. The technology strategy replaced the need to conquer others and resulted in the realization that colonies are not necessary for economic growth but countries capable of entering into trade relations. Early in history England realized that economic growth is possible only if individuals worked through market. This realization helped England to form institutions based on laissez-faire policy. The English institutions were the individuals working through market. This resulted in legal system that protected the rights of the individual and private property. The political system gave enterprising individuals the chance to defend their sources of wealth. The educations system provided the skills required for cheaper production. In brief the system followed in Englan d for technological transformation was a system of freely operating market that gave the individual the ability to take decisions. So for the private individual to maximize returns on

The causes and consequences of low motivation of teens and possible Research Paper

The causes and consequences of low motivation of teens and possible interventions - Research Paper Example Sociologists have come up with several theories for explaining low motivation among high school students. There are also more practical reasons based on the political, economic and social conditions of the locality and country inhabited by the student. This essay will look into three aspects of low motivation among teens, namely causes, consequences and possible interventions. One of the major areas of deficiency that leads to low motivation among pupils is the way education systems are set up. For example, one of the lesser acknowledged reasons for low motivation in the classroom are inadequacy on part of instructors to prepare students for a class. Surveys reveal that many students do not understand the rationale for studying a particular subject and don't comprehend why they are attending classes on the subject. This will make them disinterested and prevent them from fully exploring ideas within the subject. But a bigger reason for student low motivation is â€Å"low self-efficac y† induced by poorly designed instructional programs. As researchers assert, â€Å"instructional programs designed to identify and label students who are lacking in the reading areas of decoding, fluency and comprehension have led to intensely negative perceptions about students' abilities even as the programs strive to correct their reading deficiencies...Others argue that the school curriculum can lead to low motivation by stifling children's choice in reading and continually setting limits on reading, which can permanently affect how students see themselves as readers. Whatever the origin, low motivation can seriously hinder a student's progress within the language arts classroom. (Seglem, 2006, p.76) Another cause for low motivation among highschoolers is their tendency to experiment with recreational drugs. There is also a correlation between early drug abuse and dysfunctional family background. Hence, drug abuse itself can be seen as a consequence of another social prob lem, namely broken homes. These days school playgrounds have become places of drug retailing and drug consumption. Research based on American schools has found that â€Å"Drug use increases as the grade level increases. Many students become involved in using illegal substances because of peer pressure and others due to an emotional need. A feeling for need fulfillment may propel adolescents into the destructive behavior of substance abuse.† (Vanderjagt, 2001, p.39) The atmosphere within the family, and especially the values transmitted from parents to children can play an important role in the motivation levels of teenagers. Adolescence is when individuals rebel from parental values and social norms and try to form an identity of their own – a process referred to by psychologists as 'individuation'. Teenagers face a lot of internal conflict, as their early parental molding comes into conflict with divergent set of values acquired from peers and society during adolescen ce. This leads to a period of uncertainly and personality re-adjustment, which resolves itself into a stable state by the end of adolescence. But if the home atmosphere, especially the relationship between parents is strained or broken, it can leave a lasting negative impact on the formative

Book report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Book report - Essay Example The Author Ernest Miller Hemingway is an American author who had been actively writing between 1920’s and 1950’s. Due to his influence in modern literature, he had been awarded with a Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954. During that time, his work under study which is Across the River and into the Trees had already been published. Hemingway’s reputation can be attributed to the character of his works which belong in the identity of the 20th century works of literature, specifically fiction. His capability to present influential characters in his fiction works that can relate to people is considered to be one of his most notable capabilities (Bloom 25). Ernest Hemingway originated in Oak Park, III. He was born on July 21, 1899 and was observed to have an inclination in writing even at a young age. In the school paper, Hemingway already contributed notable articles. In 1925, after his career in the United States as a cub reporter and as a volunteer Red Cross ambulanc e driver, he moved to Paris which became the mark of his career as a novelist. He documented the said stage in his life and actively made important contributions to the literary world (Hemingway 1998, p. 27). Hemingway made and published the novel Across the River and into the Trees during the peak of his career. His main inspiration in writing the story was deeply rooted on the trip during the fall of 1948 when he visited Italy. Venice is the main location of the plot and the place of inspiration in the story (Hemingway 1998). The Plot of the Novel The novel is about the Richard Cantwell, who is a war veteran, scarred and experienced in battles. The story happened during the winter of 1949, in the post-war period in Venice, Italy and the surrounding area. The main character is a colonel who can be considered as a sad man. Although he is not that old, he had the sadness that is beyond his years due to the experiences that he had already been through (Hemingway 1959, p. 1; Kellman 7) . Colonel Cantwell, regardless of his character, fell in love with a young and beautiful Italian countess. The love and passion between the two characters can be considered as one of the most important factors of the story. This feeling in addition to torment, passion, courage and even the feeling of death are the main themes represented in the story (Hemingway 1950, p.1). The plot started as the main character Colonel Cantwell, a 50 year old man, went on a duck hunting trip in Trieste. This constituted the first chapter of the novel which was set in the present time. The scene wherein he rode a boat was dramatically expressed in a form that depicts parallelism of being in a war (Hemingway 1959, p.5). This can be attributed to the fact that the main character is continuously living in his past which is being part of a war. The next consecutive chapters dealt with the flashback of memories in the life of the protagonist. Through the 38 chapters, the life of Colonel Cantwell during th e early part of his life had been recounted. This is considered as one of the highlights of the novel since the author was able to present a realistic and affective presentation of events in the life of the protagonist. The message of the novel had been presented in an approachable manner through the narration of the main character which gives access to the inner self and brings the

Research Paper for History of Bowling Essay Example for Free

Research Paper for History of Bowling Essay The original ninepins game became very popular. Because gambling during the game was prevalent in many areas, a law was enacted to prohibit ninepin bowling. A tenth pin was added to create the game of tenpins in order to get around the law. That happend probably between 1820 and 1830. Terms For Scoring Double: Two strikes in a row. Converted split: Knocking pins in a split formation down with the second ball. Frame: Box in which the score is registered on score sheet. Line: A complete game as recorded on the score sheet. Mark: Making either a strike or a spare. Miss: Pins remaining after two balls have been rolled, except in case of a split leave. Open Frame: Frame in which neither a strike nor a spare has been made. Spare: Knocking down all ten pins by rolling two balls. Strike: Knocking all ten pins down with the first ball. Turkey: Three strikes in succession. Terms For Handling the Ball Grip: Ability to move your fingers in and out of the ball easily and still have a firm hold on the ball. Span: The distance between the thumb and finger holes. Weight: Beginning girls between 10-14 lbs. nd boys between 12-16 lbs. The ability to roll the ball easily and accurately should be considered. Terms For Delivery of Ball Approach: Area on which the bowler takes steps to the foul line and makes his delivery. Backup: Ball that fades to the right as it nears the pins (right-handed player). Brooklyn: A hit to the left of the headpin. Cross Alley: Aiming and rolling the ball directly at the pocket from the right -hand corner or left-hand corner on the leave. Curve: Ball that approaches the pins in a greater arc, usually slower, than a hook ball. Foul Line: Black line which separates the runway and the lane and designates the limit of the bowlers approach. Foul: Act at the foul line not in conformity with the rules. Headpin: Number 1 pin. High: Ball hits full on the head pin. Hook: Ball breaks sharply to the left as it approaches the pins. Leave: Any pins left standing after the first ball has been rolled. Light: Not hitting the pin full enough. Lofting: Throwing the ball too far out on lane due to release from an upright position. Pocket: Space between the one and three or one and two pins.

A Degree for Meter Readers Essay Example for Free

A Degree for Meter Readers Essay South Illinois Electric Company is a Member-Owned, Non-Profit Service Organization whose mission is to provide our member-owners with competitively priced, reliable electricity, superior customer service and innovative solutions to enhance the quality of life in our communities. Organized in 1938 for the purpose of making electricity available to rural areas, South Eastern Illinois Electric Cooperative has grown steadily and now serves over 23,000 accounts through some 3,500 miles of power line. (South Eastern Illinois Electric Cooperative, Inc. ) Meter Readers A meter reader is a utility employee who reads consumption meters for the purpose of billing. He or she may read gas, electric, and water meters, in addition to inspecting meters and utility boxes to confirm that they are in good condition, and checking for signs of tampering or fraud. There are no educational requirements for members of this profession, although most meter readers hold a high school diploma. The need for this profession is also on the decline, as many utilities have turned to automated systems which read meters remotely or read large numbers of meters via handheld units which communicate wirelessly, reducing the need for employees. Every meter reader has a route that he or she follows. Many often complete large portions of their route on foot, driving to a central point and fanning out from their vehicles, so they need to be in good physical condition. They must also be willing to tolerate inclement weather, as meter readings are not canceled for things like rain. See more:  The Story of an Hour Literary Analysis Essay Each one carries a handheld device which is used to record meter data or to interface directly with meters to collect data. At each household on the meter readers route, he or she notes down the customer identification and the reading on the customers meter. People in this position often face challenges like locked gates, hostile dogs, or inaccessible meters along their routes, although many utilities issue meter reading dates to their customers and ask them to plan ahead for their reading. If a meter cannot be read, the meter reader leaves an appointment card, asking to reschedule a date to read the meter. Once the meter readers route is finished, he or she returns to the office to submit the data to the billing department, and bills are issued. Because most utilities cover a large area, there are usually enough routes to keep readers busy every day. Many grow very familiar with their routes and they are able to complete them  quickly. Working as a meter reader requires a high degree of self-discipline, because people in this position work alone in the field, without supervision. They may have varying degrees of interaction with the public, depending on when they set out on their routes and the communities they work in. Experienced meter readers may also periodically be asked to accompany trainees as they learn the process of meter reading and following a route.

Examining Prison And Its Alternative Institutions Criminology Essay

Examining Prison And Its Alternative Institutions Criminology Essay Prisons systems around the world have been pursuing an expansionist course for decades. There are more than 9.8 million people held in penal institutions around the world (Walmsley, 2008). Prison systems are having an increasingly difficult time dealing with the number of offenders that are sentenced to imprisonment as evident in the overcrowded living conditions and understaffed institutions. At a time when public expenditure is under pressure, governments are faced with the daunting task of finding funding to build new prisons and manage existing ones. Not surprisingly, prison is increasingly becoming regarded as a scarce and expensive resource. Some theorists have argued that there prisons should be abolished altogether given that they do not fulfil the justifications for punishment. Other theorists have contended that prisons are the only solution for the most serious crime but they are used much too often and for minor offences. The term reductionist refers to significant reductions in prison population size (Rutherford, 1984). While there have been recent increases in the incarceration rate in Scandinavia and the Netherlands, they have traditionally been regarded as successful examples of a reductionist policy. This essay will argue, not for the abolition of prisons, but for a drastic reduction in their use by using strategies proposed by Rutherford (1984) applied universally. Strategies to reduce the use of prison should start with the prison itself and substantially reduce the capacity of the prison so that prison is a scarce resource. Only then will alternatives to prison be used instead of prison and not in addition to prison. America has the highest incarceration rate in the world at 748 per 100,000 of the population (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2009). There are approximately 2,297,400 people held in state and federal prisons and local jails throughout the U.S Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2009). This is almost a quarter of the worlds prisoners and yet America is home to less than five-percent of the worlds population (Adam Liptak, 2008). The state of California houses around 171,275 prisoners which is more than any other U.S state Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2009). California is a prime example of the countrys growing prison population and the unsustainable prison costs. In California alone, the prison system costs the government $10 billion a year (Trachtenberg, 2009). By 2012, the government will be spending more money on its prison system than its university system (Trachtenberg, 2009). The construction of new prisons has not reduced the unprecedented level of overcrowding or improved conditions in California prisons. There are 33 adult prisons in California and each prison is holding many more inmates than it was intended for (Specter, 2010). Some are reaching 300% of their capacity. The extreme overcrowding has meant that prison gymnasiums, hallways and cafeterias are being used to house inmates, and in some cases the inmates are triple-bunked (Specter, 2010). The inmates sleep in close confinement with one another, and there is nothing that protects them from being sexually and physically abused by fellow inmates. The crowded and unhygienic conditions, mean inmates are more likely to get sick, stay sick, and pass illnesses onto others. Prison overcrowding is directly related to the inhumane conditions that prisoners live in inside many of the worlds prisons. England and Wales also have a high prison population rate of 153 per 100,000 of the national population. Although the prison population rate in England and Wales is much lower than in America, many countries have rates of below 150 per 100,000. There are 83,392 people in prison in England and Wales and new and existing resources will need to accommodate a planned prison population of 96,000 by 2014 at an enormous cost (Walmsley, 2008; House of Commons, 2010). Recent research shows that prison expenditure in England and Wales increased dramatically between 2003 and 2009 from  £2.868 billion to  £3.982 billion respectively (Centre for Crime and Justice Studies, 2010). A large number of prisoners are sharing cells that were only intended for single use (Millie, Jacobsen Hough, 2003). If this forecast is realised then England and Wales will have the highest imprisonment rate in Western Europe at 169.1 per 100,000 people (House of Commons, 2010). The public expenditure is under great pressure in England and Wales and the government needs to decide if it will continue with its prison building programme or invest in the prevention of crime (House of Commons Justice Committee, 2009). Overcrowded prisons like in America and England and Wales are a symptom of the expansionist movement. The prison population rates are likely to increase annually and because it takes years to bring a new prison into commission the existing prisons are filled over and above their capacity (Rutherford, 1984). To deal with the expected increase in the prison population rate expansionist systems tend to have prison-building programmes in place to increase the size of their existing prisons and build new ones (Rutherford, 1984). Rutherford (1988) argues that serious overcrowding can attract political attention and lead to closer inspection of the prison system. In California, attention has been drawn to the state of Californias prisons by the various lawsuits that have been filed against the governor and corrections officials by prisoners. In the case of Plata v. Davis in 2002, the state acknowledged that it had not been providing adequate medical care to meet the needs of prisoners throu ghout the prison system (Specter, 2010). Based on this and other cases, a court was set up to address Californias prison crisis which concluded that overcrowding in the prisons prevented the state of California from providing adequate mental and medical health care to its prisoners (Specter, 2010). Following the investigation, the court imposed a population cap of 137.5% of the prisons capacity (Specter, 2010). According to Rutherford (1984), these types of orders can have several types of consequences. First, prison overcrowding can initiate a reductionist movement. Policy makers could be encouraged to make use of early release mechanisms or set-up more community-based punishments. For example, in California the state has launched a programme to trial shortening the period of time that parolees remain under intensive supervision which can last for years following their release from prison (Muradyan, 2008). The strict parole conditions mean that offenders are often returned to prison for parole violations such as missing their appointments (Muradyan, 2008). If minor-offenders are able to stay clean for six-months after their release from prison then their supervision will end early (Muradyan, 2008). In England and Wales, a report on the overcrowding of prisons strongly recommends that the government reinvest in community based sanctions for prisoners who are only sentenced to prison for a short time to reduce the prison population and reduce re-offending (House of Commons Justice Co mmittee, 2009). Second, prison overcrowding can encourage officials to make use of prison facilities in neighbouring jurisdictions (Rutherford, 1984). When the court imposed a population cap on Californias prisons the state began to transfer around 8,000 of its prisoners to facilities outside of California. This solution only succeeds in shifting the problem of overcrowding elsewhere and as we will see in the case of California, it is a short-term solution to a larger problem. The authorization to transfer Californias inmates to facilities in other states expires in July of 2011 (Muradyan, 2008). Third, overcrowding can contribute to the expansion of prison systems. When resources are stretched it can help to secure more resources for the expansion of existing prisons and the creation of new ones (Rutherford, 1984). In response to the prison crisis in California, the state borrowed $7.4 billion make room for 40,000 more prisoners in state prisons and to create 13,000 new county jail beds (Muradyan, 2008). This was a controversial move because the government obtained the financing through lease-bonding, a move that saves the state from having to gain voter approval and costs more than other types of bonds (Muradyan, 2008). It is clear from this example that there is big money involved in the expansion of prison systems. Most prisons are built with borrowed money like in California. The funding for prisons can produce big profits for the private companies that are involved in prison systems throughout the world in one way or another (Christie, 1994). Health care, food services and construction are all sectors that are expanding fast and providing big profits for private firms (Christie, 1994). Private sector involvement can also be seen in the private-prison itself. In his book, Crime Control as a Product (1994), Nils Christie raises the important point that with this amount of interplay with private profit interests, even up to the level of private prisons, we are building an important growth factor into the system (pg. 111). The profits associated with private prisons mean big money for private companies who are able to build and run prisons for a fraction of what it costs the government and the gover nment is able to avoid asking the voters permission to build a new prison (Christie, 1994). Christie warns that an expansionist policy will lead to private prisons and in turn, a focus on financial rather than humanitarian aims. Although Governments have been geared towards expansion for decades, a large number are becoming increasingly aware that prison is a scarce resource that is too expensive to maintain. In some countries, this perception is based on the understanding that prison is not fulfilling its key aims of punishment. Perhaps other countries are not comfortable using the restriction of liberty as the main form of punishment. But for a lot of countries, it would seem that a reductionist policy makes more sense than an expansionist one in economic terms. For example, in the Netherlands the judiciary believe that prison is ineffective as a punishment and should be used as a last resort (Downes, 1988; 81). The Netherlands has maintained a low prison population in the post-war period, a time when other prison populations have sky-rocketed. This is likely due to the short length of sentences compared with countries like America (Downes, 1982). There are a number of factors that are likely to have helped to maintain a certain level of penal capacity in the Netherlands. First, penal sentencing and criminal justice policy in The Netherlands has traditionally enjoyed a culture of tolerance. The culture of tolerance lead to less prejudice, less discrimination, and reduced the need for harsh punishment (Downes, 1988). A glance at the history of the Netherlands illustrates the long tradition of Dutch tolerance towards minority groups, deviants, and religious beliefs and points of view that strayed from the norm. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries The Netherlands was less inclined to use capital and corporal punishment than its European counterparts and notably fewer wartime collaborators were killed after the war compared with countries such as Belgium and France (Downes, 1988). Second, the culture of tolerance in The Netherlands was allowed to operate in the setting of a politics of accommodation. Criminal justice policy, for the most part, operated out of the public eye and was free from public opinion. Criminal justice policy was largely determined by a small group of professional elites who made accommodations with other smaller groups to support tolerant policies. A range of different groups, even those that supported abolitionism, were a part of the penal reform. Although criminologists with extreme views such as Bianchi, would have been excluded from advisory roles in England and Wales or the United States, in The Netherlands radical views on criminal justice are welcomed and the participation of elites with such views serves to lead debates in a direction that would not have been considered otherwise. The criminal justice process also remained free from unnecessary public interaction. The criminal justice system was run by a small number of highly pr ofessional and well educated practitioners. Other theories assert that a combination of social developments contributed to the sentencing trends in the Netherlands. There are five major social developments that may have impacted on the situation; the comprehensive range of social services, a large number of youth centres, a large number of client-oriented welfare and social-service agencies, responsible reporting by the mass media, and the pressure group activities on behalf of the penal reform by the social service agencies (Hulsman, as cited in Downes, 1988; 344). Another factor could be that many Dutch people were imprisoned during the War and that this made the Dutch less inclined to administer sentences of imprisonment as they understood the pains that imprisonment can cause (Downes, 1988). Downes (1988) argues that these factors occurred alongside the sentencing trends but that they did not necessarily influence the trends. The trends in the sentencing policy of the Netherlands have remained rather constant. The mild reactions of the Dutch to crime and the co-operation of political parties made it easier for a small group of elites to implement criminal justice policies free from public opinion. welfare However, maintaining such a stable prison population would not have been possible without the co-operation of the judges. The legal training which places a negative value on imprisonment seems to be important in maintaining the use of imprisonment as a last resort. The reductionist policy was not peculiar to The Netherlands at this time. Scandinavian countries have also enjoyed low levels of imprisonment and humane prison conditions. Although the levels of imprisonment in Scandinavia are also on the rise, the rate of 66 per 100,000 of the population is still significantly lower than many countries around the world (Pratt, 2008; Walmsley, 2008). Pratt (2008) attributes the low prison population rates and humane prison conditions to a culture of equality and generous welfare state. The Scandinavian welfare state provided support for anybody that needs it. There were no limits to who could apply for assistance and no shame involved in asking for it (Pratt, 2008). The people of Scandinavia afforded the state a large amount of power and paid high taxes in exchange for high levels of security. The state provided security for its people by guaranteeing work and unemployment benefits, social services (medical care, care for the elderly, and improved li ving conditions for its citizens (Pratt, 2008). Peoples individual interests were secondary to shared common and political goals (Pratt, 2008). In Scandinavia, there was a generally held belief that a strong welfare state could reduce the problem of crime the way it had reduced other social problems (Pratt, 2008). Crime was viewed as an illness that could be treated like any other illness and so the rehabilitation of offenders was an important part of the criminal justice process (Pratt, 2008). The job of the criminal justice system was to treat offenders and then reintegrate offenders back into the community. While in prison, offenders were treated humanely and there was no need for further degradation because the loss of liberty was the punishment (Pratt, 2008). Furthermore, the social solidarity in Scandinavia meant that offenders were not seen as a dangerous class, merely as another group of welfare recipients (Pratt, 2008). The Scandinavian public seem to be an exception to the increasingly punitive attitudes and policy towards offenders that exists in many countries around the world. Although the support for the rehabilitation of offenders is on the decline, while the use of sentencing and the length of sentences is increasing they are still more inclined than their European counterparts to believe that prevention programmes can reduce crime (Demker, Towns, Duus-Otterstrà ¶m Sebring, 2008. In addition, less than half of the Swedish public still believe that tougher jail sentences can reduce crime (Demker et al., 2008). The Netherlands and Scandinavia demonstrate that prison populations can be reduced and sustained at low levels. Some general themes have emerged: the criminal justice policies are expert and research driven; the criminal justice system is not influenced by public opinion or political motives; a strong welfare state. Perhaps the most important conditions for a successful reductionist approach are a questioning of the prison system and the purposes it serves and an understanding that the prison population is less to do with the amount of crime that occurs than the response to crime by the criminal justice system (Rutherford, 1984). According to Rutherford (1984) the reductionist policy can be applied more universally. Before looking at the ways Rutherford (1984) has proposed to reduce the prison population it is important to acknowledge that the items on the agenda need political support. Politicians need to acknowledge that there are alternatives to prison available, as demonstrated in Scandinavia and the Netherlands. Instead of forecasting an increase in the number of people in prison, new low targets should be set. In addition, there must be a desire to push forward with the reductionist agenda even during hard times (Rutherford, 1984). Rutherford (1984) acknowledges that the ideological concerns of officials within the criminal justice system significantly influence the policies and procedures that are made. In many countries, there is a political consensus that an approach to crime and criminality should be tough. For example, in England and Wales, the prison system has expanded under both the Labour and Conservative governments. Both Labour and Conservative governments seems to ascribe to the Great Expectations  [1]  ideology as illustrated by their investment in the prison system. To gain political support for the reductionist agenda, people must be made not to like the great expectations approach so that it loses its vote-winning potential. Before any items on the reductionist agenda can be introduced there is a lot of work that will need to be done. Rutherford (1984) proposes nine ways to reduce the prison population according to the reductionist approach (Rutherford, 1984). They are as follows: The physical capacity of the prison system should be substantially reduced. There should be a precise statement of minimum standards as to the physical conditions of imprisonment and these should be legally enforceable. The optimal prison system staff-to-prisoner ratio should be determined and implemented. The prison system should have at its disposal early release mechanisms and use these to avoid overcrowding. Certain categories of persons sentenced to imprisonment should, if the space be not immediately available, wait until called-up by the prison system. Sentencing discretion should be structured towards use of the least restrictive sanction. Breach or default of non-custodial sanctions should only exceptionally be dealt with by imprisonment. The range of non-imprisonable offences should be widened to include certain categories of theft. The scope of the criminal law should be considerably narrowed (Rutherford, 1984: p. 175-176) To control overcrowding, Rutherford (1984) encourages the use of early release mechanisms. Parole as a form of early release can play a major part in determining sentence length and the size of the prison population. Parole is already being used in places like Australia, United Kingdom, Canada, and New Zealand (Ministry of Justice, 2010). Generally speaking, parole is the release of an offender on the grounds that they adhere to conditions decided upon prior to their release and that these conditions are in effect until the full term of their sentence is up. Narrowing the scope of the criminal law and widening the range of non-imprisonable offences is important because the majority of people in prison are not serious offenders, they are people who have committed minor crimes or created a social nuisance (Rutherford, 1984). Rutherford (1984) argues that as long as prison is used instead of providing welfare to these people, governments will not try to find more effective ways of dealing with this behaviour. At one point in time, social nuisances such as sleeping on the streets and begging were imprisonable offences. According to Rutherford (1984) certain categories of theft should also be made non-imprisonable. He proposes that: On economic and philosophic grounds, property offences where the amount involved is less than, say  £100, should be non-imprisonable. (Rutherford, 1988: 182). Perhaps the value of the property stolen is not the best way to decide whether an offence is serious or not especially when it is as random and subjective as Rutherford (1984) has suggested. It would make more sense to make all minor thefts non-imprisonable and would also be likely to have a more significant effect on the size of the prison population. An alternative suggestion is decriminalisation. Decriminalisation has the potential to reduce the prison population substantially if it is applied to drug use. In 2000, a report blamed the US drug contol policies for the soaring incarceration rate (Schiraldi, Holman Beatty, 2000). In that same year, nearly a quarter of people imprisoned were imprisoned for a non-violent drug-related offence (Schiraldi, Holman Beatty, 2000). These findings suggest that the decriminalisation of drugs and perhaps other minor non-violent offences could significantly reduce the number of people that enter the criminal justice system. Rutherford (1984) advocates the structuring of sentence discretion towards the use of the least restrictive sanction. To achieve this, Rutherford suggests a commission be set up to determine sentencing guidelines. A sentencing commission would have the difficult task of determining the seriousness of offences. The judiciary are generally given a lot of discretion when it comes to deciding sentences. For sentencing policy to have an impact on the prison population it requires the co-operation of the judiciary. Despite the introduction of non-custodial sentences prison populations have continued to rise. This raises doubts about whether non-custodial sentences are being used in the ways that they were intended. In some cases non-custodial sentences are used in addition to imprisonment or in instances where a custodial sentence would not have been handed down in the first place (Rutherford, 1984). Another concern is that strict conditions often accompany alternative sanctions. If the strict conditions are breached then the person can end up in prison anyway. An example of this is the suspended prison sentence which was introduced into English law in 1967 (Bottoms, 1981). The suspended prison sentence was supposed to be used instead of a prison sentence but it was largely used in cases where a fine or probation would have been previously handed out (Bottoms, 1981). Only about half of the people who received the suspended prison sentence would have actually been sentenced to prison if it were not for the suspended sentence (Bottoms, 1981). In addition, judges began to hand out longer sentences to people that received the suspended sentence than they would have if the same person was actually sentenced to prison (Bottoms, 1981). These figures provided a strong argument for the removal of the use of the suspended sentence in England. However, the suspended sentence was implemented in Japan and the Netherlands more successfully. An important difference is that in Japan and the Netherlands, a breach of the suspended sentence does not result in imprisonment (Rutherford, 1984). Rutherford (1984) suggests that this difference might explain why the suspended sentence has contributed to the prison population in England but not in the Netherlands or Japan. The inherent danger of alternative sanctions is that they will supplement rather than replace sentences of imprisonment. Rutherford (1984) recommends establishing a clear understanding of when the non-custodial sentence should be used and what will happen if further offending occurs while the non-custodial sentence is in place. Failure to pay attention to these important issues can have the unintended consequence, as seen in England, of widening the scope of the criminal justice system. Often, strategies to reduce the prison population focus on decisions at the rear of the criminal justice process that deal with the prosecution stage. It is important to note that the decision of who enters the criminal justice system is largely outside the control of the government (Rutherford, 1984). The police are involved in crime prevention, recording of crime, and investigating crime. They are the gatekeepers of the criminal justice system and are afforded a great deal of discretionary power in deciding who enters the criminal justice system and who does not. In England, the police decide who to stop and search, who is guilty, and who to prosecute (Poyser, 2004). The decisions that they make have a huge impact on prison practice and policy. Perhaps the best way to restrict the reach of the criminal justice system is to significantly reduce the physical capacity of the prison system. There are three main ways to reduce the prison capacity; cease new prison building, phased closing of existing prisons, and refurbish existing prisons. In the Netherlands, prior to 1975, there was a large reduction in the prison population from 6,500 inmates to less than 2,500 inmates. The decrease in prison population size was associated with the closure of sixteen of the countrys prisons. If prison capacity is reduced and no new prisons are built, provided countries do not tolerate overcrowding, prison will be a scarce resource that should be reserved for the most serious crime. A logical extension of the reductionist argument is that prisons should be abolished altogether. Although it may seem a radical idea, a glance at the history of the death penalty tells us that abolition is indeed possible (footnote). This idea has received considerable attention within the field of criminology especially by criminologist Thomas Mathiesen. Over the years, arguments in defence of prisons have focused on claims about the purposes of punishment and prison. According to these arguments the purposes of punishment are: rehabilitation, general prevention, collective and selective incapacitation, and justice (Mathiesen, 2000). Mathiesen addresses each one in turn in his book Prison on Trial (2000). First, Mathiesen (2000) examines recent research on rehabilitation in prisons. The CDATE project is a review of a large number of studies on the rehabilitation of offenders in prison and the effects of interventions on drug use and recidivism (Mathiesen, 2000). The project found that correctional interventions were not effective in reducing recidivism (Mathiesen, 2000). Interestingly, community based sentences such as parole and probation did not do much better at reducing recidivism. Some of the programmes included in the study actually produced more problems. It is worth noting that a number of studies on interventions with an emphasis on developing social skills found positive results (Mathiesen, 2000). However, these studies are few and far between. Rutherford (1984) and Matheisen (2000) both express concern over the use of correctional interventions in the prison context. The kind of ideology that supports the use of prison to rehabilitate offenders ignores the history of resear ch on the topic. Rutherford (1999) is also concerned that rehabilitation is based on the idea that prison works and that offenders can be diagnosed and then treated. Then, Mathiesen (2000) addresses the idea that prison serves the function of general prevention. The effectiveness of prisons in producing enough fear in people to convince them not to commit crimes has been hotly debated in criminology. Mathiesen refers to Richard Wrights (1994) review of studies on deterrence. Wright (1994) concludes that the greater a persons perceived and actual chances of getting caught are, the less likely they are to commit crime (Wright, 1994). This is also true for later crime. Changes in policy that increase the perceived chances of being caught will reduce crime in the short-term but will not have a lasting effect (Wright, 1994). Furthermore, the expected and actual severity of crime has no effect on offending (Wright, 1994). Taken together, these findings provide no evidence of a preventative effect of the severity of punishment. Next, Mathiesen (2000) looks at incarceration. There are two ways that prison can be used as incapacitation; collective incapacitation and selective incapacitation. Collective incapacitation refers to the use of prison to incapacitate offenders based on the seriousness of the crime and to a lesser extent, their prior convictions (Wright, 1994). Selective incapacitation refers to the use of prison to incapacitate certain offenders who continually offend and pose a risk to law-abiding citizens (Wright, 1994). Wright (1994) argues that a small group of chronic offenders are responsible for the majority of crime committed. Although, prisons do not deter the offenders from committing crime, it can atleast incapacitate them and protect society from the crime of the chronics (Wright, 1994: 112). On the other hand, Mathiesen (2000) contends that research provides no support for incapacitation in defence of prisons. Incapacitation does not have a significant effect on the rate of crime nor do es it increase the safety of citizens (Mathiesen, 2000). In a review of the related literature, prison and more specifically incapacitation only had marginal effects on crime (Mathieson, 2000). It is also important to note that even though new generation of criminals will only replace those that are incarcerated and incapacitated. To lock the new chronic offenders away would only serve to swell the prisons more. The idea of selective incapacitation is even more controversial. Selective incapacitation raises methodological, legal, and moral concerns about the accuracy of predictive measures used to estimate the probability of future behaviours. The problem of false positives (people predicted to continually reoffend that do not) is central to these arguments. The number of false positives, from prediction instruments, is still very high (Mathiesen, 2000). If the various instruments were put into practice despite their inaccuracy, they would influence the decision making process in co urt. The chance that a person will re-offend is only one feature that the courts take into account when making their decisions. Courts also need to consider mitigating circumstances, fairness, and history amongst other things. Finally, proponents of the prison system endorse retribution as an ethical and fair goal for prisons. These beliefs date back to the influential writings of Cesare Beccaria (1964) in On crimes and Punishments. Beccaria disagreed with the barbaric and extreme punishments that were so commonly used in 18th century Europe. Retributivists believe that punishment should be proportionate to the crime. In this case, offenders are punished not for rehabilitation, or to prevent them commiting more crimes, but to give them their just desserts. The just desserts model requires that crimes are ranked according to severity, punishments are ranked according to severity, and then the crimes and punishments are matched (Wright, 1994). Ranking punishment